Crystallographic analysis of materials is performed in the Laboratory using Powder X-ray Diffraction (XRD). The technique is based on the interaction of X-rays with the crystal structure of materials. When an X-ray beam strikes a crystalline material, atoms arranged in periodic crystal planes diffract the radiation at specific angles. The resulting diffraction pattern constitutes a characteristic fingerprint of the material’s crystal structure.

The measurement follows Bragg’s law, according to which diffraction angles are directly related to the distances between crystal planes. Analysis of the intensity-angle diagram (diffractogram) enables the crystalline phases present in a sample to be identified.

Powder XRD requires a small quantity of material to be collected and ground into a powder before measurement.

Radiographic analysis of materials is performed in the Laboratory using digital X-ray radiography. This non-destructive testing technique enables the internal structure of an object to be imaged without sampling or intervention in the material.

The method is based on the differential absorption of X-rays by materials. When an X-ray beam passes through an object, part of the radiation is absorbed and part is transmitted through the material. The recorded radiation intensity depends on the thickness, density, and composition of the materials. In digital radiography, the radiation emerging from the object is recorded by a digital detector, which converts the signal into a high-resolution digital image.

Electron microscopy is an advanced structural-analysis technique that enables the morphology and microstructure of a sample to be observed at very high magnification. The Laboratory uses a variable-pressure Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) equipped with multiple detectors and advanced analytical systems.

SEM operation is based on scanning the sample surface with a finely focused electron beam. The interaction of the electrons with the material produces various signals, including secondary electrons, backscattered electrons, and characteristic X-rays. These signals are recorded by specialised detectors and converted into high-resolution images and analytical data.

Electron microscopy is generally regarded as a non-destructive technique, as only a small quantity of sample is required for analysis. In some cases, limited sample preparation may be necessary, without substantially altering its structure.

Optical microscopy is a fundamental technique for observing and analysing material structure at the microscale. The Laboratory uses modern optical-microscopy systems, including an automated stereomicroscope and a high-resolution biological microscope with phase-contrast capability, both equipped with digital cameras for image acquisition and documentation of observations.

The technique is based on observing the interaction of visible light with the sample, enabling the morphology, microstructure, and surface characteristics of materials to be imaged. Different magnifications and illumination techniques allow detailed examination of the surface or the internal structure of thin samples.

Optical microscopy is a non-destructive technique, as it usually requires little or no special sample preparation and enables direct observation without altering the material’s structure. In some cases, simple preparation, such as sectioning or surface polishing, may be required.